#1: Pass, F. & Sweller, J. (2014) Implications of cognitive load theory for multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 27-42). New York: Cambridge. In this chapter, Pass & Sweller (2014) discuss cognitive architecture. Using the fact that this architecture entails the makeup of the organization of cognitive structures and processes, the authors use this to show how the theory of cognitive load has relevance in instructional design in the area of multimedia design. The primary focus is human knowledge and how it is organized for retention (to long-term memory). This information provides the basis for instructional material and instructional design principles for designers. In covering this theory, the authors look mainly at multimedia learning, which involves spoken or written words alongside pictures (images and diagrams included). Using the basis of evolutionary theory, two categories of knowledge are discussed: 1) biologically primary knowledge and 2) biologically secondary knowledge. Biologically primary knowledge is knowledge that is learned over the generations as humans, such as face recognition and language. It is our nature to learn this way. Biologically secondary knowledge is knowledge that we must be taught, because we need it for cultural reasons. This includes topics we are taught in educational institutions such as reading and writing. We must make effort to learn this secondary way. Cognitive load is concerned with this second way of learning. The five principles associated with cognitive load and cognitive architecture are: 1) the Information Store Principle, 2) the Borrowing and Reorganizing Principle, 3) the Randomness as Genesis Principle, 4) the Narrow Limits of Change Principle, and 5) the Environmental Organizing and Linking Principle. The three categories of cognitive load: 1) intrinsic, 2) extrinsic, and 3) germane, directly affect instructional design principles in that considerations for rote learning (memorization) and the relationship between working and long-term memory must be a focus in how humans learn.
#2: Ayres, P & Sweller, J. (2014) The split-attention principle in multimedia Learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 206-226). New York: Cambridge. In this chapter, Ayres and Sweller (2014) discuss the split-attention principle as a part of multimedia learning. They provide examples and research outcomes of this principle that can improve multimedia instruction, if applied systematically. The split-attention principle in multimedia learning comes about when material is designed in such a way that the learner’s attention is split between varieties of material in order to learn the topic of the presented material. This principle’s focus is on the relationship between working and long-term memory and is first shown in the cognitive load theory, which is of course concerned with the cognitive architecture of humans.
An example of material that is designed to create split-attention is a diagram that has the solution to solve a problem listed below the image, rather than including the solution within the image. This forces the learner to look away from the image to see the solution and then look back at the image while trying to remember the steps of the solution. When the diagram image contains the solution, less information must be kept in temporary storage, reducing working-memory load. Key research by Sweller and Chandler (1994) in the area of e-learning show this effect primarily exists when instructional material is high in element interactivity. Some methods to prevent split-attention are directing the attention of the learner using a color-coding system and hypertext strategies that allow self-pacing. Although there are guidelines that can help with split-attention, much multimedia material is ineffectively designed leaving instructional designers with the predicament of helping learners with how to deal with this material, rather than trying to revamp all that already exists.
#3: Kalyuga, S. & Sweller, J. (2014) The redundancy principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 247-262). New York: Cambridge. In this chapter, Kalyuga & Sweller (2014) discuss the redundancy principle as it pertains to multimedia learning. Providing the same information more than once in the same learning material, and additionally, presenting the information concurrently, results in an increase in extraneous cognitive load. This load comes due to the fact that the learner must now process the repeated material. This has an effect on instructional design because designers must now remove the redundant material to improve the instructional material. Mayer & Moreno (2003) also call this load the coherence effect. The author’s go on to discuss experimental evidence that includes picture/text redundancy, actual equipment redundancy (varies computer activities), and written/spoken text redundancy.
Given the information of how redundancy occurs, it is up to the instructional designer to aid in modifying instructional material to remove extraneous and overlapping cognitive load. In addition to those mention, a learner could also encounter this effect when multimedia has unnecessary background music, animations, stories, and any other information that is not directly related to the primary goal. It is the concern of the instructional designer to determine when to change the multimedia to not causes the effect or teach the learner how to handle the multiple presentation forms of the same information/material.
#4: Sweller, J. (1994). Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design. Learning and Instruction, 4, 295-312. In this paper, Sweller (1994) considers the features that make some material more difficult to learn than other material. The author takes a detailed look at cognitive theory and considers the suggestion that schema acquisition and automation are the primary mechanisms of learning when embarking upon intellectual activities. This is the artificial side of cognitive theory since it can be affected by instruction design. The author also spends some time comparing this side to intrinsic cognitive load, where learning is natural and constant. Also considered is high cognitive load due to high element activity in the presentation. Ultimately, the learning need determine the cognitive learn whether there is high element activity or not. If material can be learned in a successive manner, then cognitive load is low. This means that instructional designers can revamp the material to not cause extraneous cognitive load.
The authors go on to suggest that this high element activity can explain why some material is harder to learn and more difficult to understand. In consideration of this hypothesis, the authors go on to discuss principles stemming from cognitive load such as the split-attention principle and redundancy principle. In the end, high element interactivity lends to the knowledge of how difficult the material might be and allow instructional designs to design instructional material accordingly.
#5: Nash, S. S. (2007). Mobile learning, cognitive architecture and the study of literature. Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology, 4, 811-818. I chose this paper because I am interested in learning more about the effects of cognitive load on e-learning and how the cognitive architecture plays a role. Most material that discussed these topics together for e-learning were in the form of a book or required payment to obtain the paper. The current title by Nash (2007), discusses mobile learning and cognitive architecture. Also discussed is the use of mobile technology in furthering learning in literature and the fact that learners can now obtain books that they enjoy reading, which can now include the classics, on their mobile devices at a low cost. I have a personal interest here as well because I am trying to find new ways for my youngest son to read since he loves technology and he needs improvement in the area of reading comprehension.
Nash seeks to investigate accommodating cognitive architecture by adding mobile learning applications as the tool in the study of literature and analyzing learning outcomes related to reading comprehension, recall, critical thinking, and synthesis. Understanding cognitive architecture can help instructional designers to include the appropriate combination of text, images, and voice in multimedia material on mobile technology, outcome-focused instructional strategies (Nash 2007). This leads to the usage of mobile technology, especially e-books, that is very different than what occurs in face-to-face classroom settings. In other words, it changes the behavior of the learner.