#1: Mayer, R. E. (2014) Introduction to multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 1-26). New York: Cambridge. The primary purpose of this chapter is to discuss multimedia learning, what it offers learners, and its research base, including approaches describing processes that help support cognitive theory. Mayer (2014) begins with the rationale for studying multimedia learning, the idea that people learn better when pictures and words are used in presentations (multimedia learning hypothesis), rather than just words alone. The goal of research is to design multimedia learning materials so that there is a promotion of meaningful learning. Mayer goes on to state that the remainder of the textbook, 34 chapters, covers a “sharp increase in the research base” (p. 1), a more broad look at the study of multimedia learning, a refinement of theories related to multimedia learning, and additional principles, seven are mentioned, of multimedia learning.
In the efforts to foster meaningful learning versus rote learning, there must be an understanding of what multimedia means. The variety of multimedia includes spoken or text words and the wide variety of picture make-up. All of which can include animations, maps, illustrations, and so on. Also, an understanding that multimedia learning is the building of mental representations from these words and pictures. Lastly, multimedia instruction is the presentation of words and pictures that are intended to promote learning. These three definitions are the basis of the discussion in chapter 1 that set the context for the remaining chapters. The research base for multimedia learning are presented in parts that include theoretical foundations, such as Sweller’s cognitive theory, Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning; basic principles such as split-attention, modality, redundancy, and signaling; advanced principles of multimedia learning such as collaboration, prior knowledge, and working memory; multimedia learning of cognitive processes such as cognitive skills and metacognitive strategies; and multimedia learning in advanced computer-based contexts such as intelligent tutoring systems, games, simulations, and e-courses. Additionally in this version of Mayer’s book, a comparison of the learner-centered versus technology-centered approaches is included. #2: Mayer, R. E. (2014) Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 43-71). New York: Cambridge. In this chapter, Mayer (2014) discusses the design of multimedia learning materials and why they are designed the way they are. The best multimedia learning occurs when the material is designed with how humans actually learn. He goes on to discuss cognitive theory and three cognitive science principles for which it is based: 1) dual channel assumption, limited-capacity assumption, and active processing assumption. Additionally, there are five cognitive processes for multimedia learning, they include: 1) selecting relevant words, 2) selecting relevant images, 3) organizing words for coherent verbal presentation, 4) organizing images for coherent verbal presentation, and 5) integrating pictorial and verbal representations and prior knowledge. The important focus is the learner’s cognitive capacity. The demands on this capacity include extraneous processing, essential processing, and generative processing. The goal is to affect each of these processing functions, namely to reduce extraneous processing, to manage essential processing, and to foster generative processing. The design of multimedia material must foster meaningful learning while not cause cognitive overload.
Finally, Mayer provides an overview of the history of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning. Reviewing past research shows that dual-channels, limited capacity, and active-processing have remained constant. The addition of learning scenarios (extraneous, essential, and generative) have led to the current representation of cognitive learning theory for multimedia learning. The quest is to link this theory to the instructional framework, which will hopefully bridge the science of learning with the science of instruction. Future research is needed to focus on learner motivation and metacognition (the desire to learn and their awareness of cognitive processing).
#3: Schnotz, W. (2014) Integrated model of text and picture comprehension. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 72-103). New York: Cambridge. This chapter concerns the integrative model of text and picture comprehension (ITPC). This model provides a framework for the analysis of learning from multiple representations (Schnotz, 2014). These representations include spoken or written text, and sound and visual pictures. A variety of cognitive science principles are incorporated into the model to support research around human cognition. The purpose of developing this model is to create a greater understand of learning as it relates to the multimedia principle (text and picture together for better learning). In doing so, instructional designers can make better decisions in creating multimedia learning materials. There are pros and cons to using this model, for it lends to a conflict between simple strokes of content and complexity of processing in the presentation of concepts. The crux of the conflict is in the external (descriptions and depictions) and internal (mental) forms of representation. Descriptive representations are more powerful in expressing abstract knowledge while depictive representations are informationally incomplete, which allow better for drawing inferences. Mental representations come in three forms and research shows that when a learner understands texts and pictures, they create multiple mental representations. These are: 1) text surface, 2) propositional, and 3) text content. Research by Shiffrin (1971) introduces three memory subsystems: sensory registers, working memory, and long-term memory. Each have different functions and different constraints on processing texts and pictures. These multiple memory systems and cognitive architecture are incorporated into the ITPC model. Instructional designers can use guidelines suggested by the model to develop meaningful learning materials, but will need to be mindful of issues that can creep up due to redundancy, text-picture coherence, spatial and temporal contiguity, and sequencing.
#4: Mayer, R.E., & Anderson, B. (1991). Animations Need Narrations: An Experimental Test of a Dual-coding Hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 3, 484-490. In this paper, Mayer & Anderson (1991) discuss research related to dual-coding theory and the goal of science education to help students understand scientific explanations. The results of the dual-coding theory suggests two types of connections, those that are representational and those that are referential. Even with these possible connections, as it relates to multimedia learning, science educators still have many questions on what denotes understanding, what is understandable explanation, how educators can help with understanding of scientific explanation, and how can computer-based animations be used to aide in this understanding. The content of this paper discusses the possibilities.
The author begins with previous research that looks at explanative text and explanative illustrations. Explanative text consists of step-by-step descriptions of cause-and-effect actions occurring within a system, while explanative illustrations consists of frame-by-frame picture of the cause-and-effect changes occurring within the system. The research showed that students learned better when words were mapped to pictures. From experiments they examined three hypotheses: 1) single-code, 2) separate dual-code, and 3) integrated dual-code. The comparison of the hypotheses supports the dual-code theory in that students retained information and showed better performance on the transfer tests given after viewing the presentation material.
#5: Bradley, Radakovich Kristy, "The Effects Of Presentation Mode And Pace On Learning Immunology With Computer Simulation A Cognitive Evaluation Of A Multimedia Learning Resource" (2011). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 1829. http://stars.library.ucf.edu/etd/1829 This paper discusses the development of computer-based multimedia lessons to teach novice learners immunology. The experiments were configured to run animations with pictures only and separately, animations with narration. The hypotheses of the experiments were guided by the cognitive theory and cognitive theory of multimedia learning. The primary goal of the research is to determine which configuration offers better learning and reduces mental workload. Some experiments considered such guidelines as avoiding redundancy and modality, in addition to pace. The results showed no significant gain pertaining to redundancy and modality, but pace alone showed greater results. The opposite was true for other experiments. These experiments laid the foundation for this type of research (computer-based), but many more studies are needed. I chose this paper because I am interested in learning more about the effects of cognitive load on e-learning and how the cognitive architecture plays a role. I am also interested in developing computer-based multimedia learning for computer science courses, specifically programming languages. This paper gave me needed information on how to build and perform this type of study.