#1: Johnson, C. & Priest, H. A. (2014). The feedback principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 449-463). New York: Cambridge. This chapter discusses research related to multimedia learning environments and providing feedback for learners. The goal is to look at reducing cognitive overload in these types of environments. Cognitive overload occurs because these environments require learners to integrate information from a variety of sources and modalities. Overload occurs with both novice and expert learners; however, novice learners are more greatly affected because they do not have the prior knowledge connections to properly process new information. This is where the idea of feedback comes into the design of the learning environments. Novice learners can gain a deeper understanding when provided with explanatory feedback, which offers principle-based explanations of why their answer was correct or incorrect. The other feedback is corrective feedback. This provides only knowledge that the answer was correct or not correct.
Learners, by receiving the appropriate feedback, can evaluate their responses, identify a discrepancy in their knowledge, and repair faulty knowledge (p. 449). Experiments showed that learners who received the explanatory feedback had higher scores on the transfer tests provided after the presentation. Authors also state that understanding for learners can be deepened when feedback is designed effectively to help in learning and correcting mistakes. Design suggestions include feedback that prompts active processing and take into account individual learning differences. Limitations on the research is the focus on novice learners and explanatory feedback. Further research is needed for expert learners and corrective feedback.
#2: Scheiter, K. (2014). The learner control principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 487-512). New York: Cambridge. In this chapter, the authors discuss the learner control principle in multimedia learning. This principle suggests that giving the learner control over their instruction can aid in active processing of instruction and garner an increased motivation to learn and self-regulate skills and preferences. Giving the learner control allows them to pace, sequence, and select information. The requirement is that the learner must have high-levels of prior knowledge and they must receive additional instructional support to orient themselves in the learning environment to be able to use the self-regulate learning.
These environments are digital learning and can be linear and nonlinear. The linear systems allow users to use only the “back” and “next” buttons to navigate the system, while the nonlinear systems contain hyperlinks that allow learners to select and pace their contents as they desire. Hypermedia environments are the results of merging hypertext with multimedia, network-like and indeed nonlinear. This latter system works well with user who have high-levels of prior knowledge. Unfortunately, experiments how found that convincing evidence to support learners having control over their instruction, does not exist. The authors go on to discuss why this is the case, but in finale the research is limited and initial conclusions should not be drawn on initial results.
#3: Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2005). Role of Guidance, Reflection, and Interactivity in an Agent-Based Multimedia Game. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(1), 117-128. In this paper, the authors discuss the ideas of guidance and reflection through a variety of experiments. Some experiments are guided using an agent that provides corrective and explanatory feedback, while others provide only corrective feedback. Another approach is to ask students to provide explanation about their problem-solving answers. The authors discovered that guidance in the form of explanatory feedback produced higher transfer scores, fewer incorrect answers, and greater reduction of misconceptions during problem solving. Additionally, the discovered that reflection in the form of having students give explanations for their answers did not affect learning.
Other experiments showed that reflection led to retention in non-interactive environments. This was not the case in the interactive environments unless students were provided solutions and then asked to reflection on those answers. Each of the experiments were researched using an interactive multimedia game to help students learn science. The primary question for the research is to discover whether educational games have the potential for improving academic learning. Each experiment focused on four instructional concepts: 1) interactivity, 2) reflection, 3) feedback, and guidance. The results of the experiments show some positive results for guidance as it relates to the cognitive model; however, the results are also dependent on the type of multimedia game. This experiment used only one type of game. Also, the experiments use one type of interactivity, guidance, and reflection. Future research needs to vary the gaming environment and instructional concepts.
#4: Kalyuga, S. (2007). Enhancing Instructional Efficiency of Interactive E-learning Environments: A Cognitive Load Perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 19, 387-399. In this paper, the authors discuss the many concepts of cognitive load and cognitive architecture explained in previous papers and chapters by such authors as Mayer (2014) and Moreno (2007). No matter what principles are introduced, multimedia interactivity, and instructional concepts, there can be cognitive overload introduced, such as in the case of expertise reverse and redundancy principles. It is the responsibility of the designer to make sure the appropriate combination of principles are used and that learner prior knowledge is considered.
The basis of this research is focused on the limitations of working memory and because of this we have cognitive overload. This affects overall learning due to the reduction of resources available to construct meaning connections that are stored to long-term memory. Given the variety of multimedia learning environments, learners with prior knowledge are able to effectively learn with less guidance than novice learners.
#5: National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing (CRESST). 300 Charles E Young Drive N, GSE&IS Building 3rd Floor, Mailbox 951522, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1522. Tel: 310-206-1532; Fax: 310-825-3883; Web site: http://www.cresst.org This paper discusses a study that seeks to discover if positive learning can occur with computer-based learning for novice learners. The research came because of a renewed interest in individualized instruction due to advances in technology and assessment. Also, there is an interest in increase access to training and education that is efficient and cost effective. The study focus was sixth-grade and eighth-grade students and the experiment was met with a level of success for brief instruction components.
I chose this paper because as a part of learning how to create effective multimedia learning, I wanted to read more about learner control with a focus on novice learners rather than those with prior knowledge (the address of learner control principle in Mayer). This is one of a few research papers I could find that had a focus on novice learners (some required payment, but focused on both learners).