#1: Mayer, R.E., & Moreno, R. (2010). Techniques that reduce extraneous cognitive load and manage intrinsic cognitive load during multimedia learning. In J. L. Plass, R. Moreno, & R. Brünken (Eds.), Cognitive Load Theory (pp. 131-152). New York: Cambridge. This chapter discusses research related to multimedia learning, specifically computer-based, short, narrated instructional material. The research seeks to improve this style of instruction and desires to be theory-based, educationally relevant, and scientifically rigorous (Mayer and Moreno, 2010). The heart of the multimedia instruction will have words and pictures and be presented in a computer-based environment. The theory-based research will be grounded in the cognitive learning theory of multimedia learning. For the research to be educationally relevant, the learning materials will represent authentic learning situations, whether from text-based learning or computer gaming scenarios. The authors are focusing in on multimedia features that affect learning, so they use meta-analysis of well-controlled experiments for their scientific research method.
The authors begin by reviewing three main principles of cognitive science research: 1) dual channel, 2) limited capacity, and 3) active processing. These principles present a simple challenge for human learning, which is people must actively process information using channels with limited capacity for processing. This in turn overloads the learner’s cognitive system. The idea is to develop computer-based multimedia material that will reduce extraneous cognitive load, manage intrinsic cognitive load, and foster germane cognitive load. The author’s explore five research-based principles to aid in reducing extraneous cognitive load: coherence, redundancy, signaling, spatial contiguity, and temporal contiguity. They also explore three principles to aid in managing intrinsic load: segmenting, pertaining, and modality. Experiments using these principles were positive in that students were able to transfer knowledge during testing that followed the presentations. However, more research is need in a more authentic learning environment and those curriculum beyond science and mathematics.
#2: van Merriënboer, J. J., & Kester, L. (2014). The four-component instructional design model: Multimedia principles in environments for complex learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 104-148). New York: Cambridge. In this chapter, the four-component instructional design model (4C/ID) is introduced. This model states that four components are necessary to realize complex learning (p. 104). The four components are 1) learning tasks, 2) supportive information, 3) procedural information, and 4) part-task practice. In this chapter, instruction controlled by the system, the learner, or both, are discussed in terms of the model for designing multimedia learning environments. The authors go on to discuss 22 multimedia principles related to the instructional control and the four components, along with the variety of work environments. Computer-simulated, social media, mobile apps, and online help systems environments are just a few of the examples.
The primary goal of using 4C/ID is to be meaningful in selecting the design of multimedia environment when developing learning materials, the support material, and feedback. The authors explain how to accomplish this through the rest of the chapter by providing a general description of how people learn complex skills, the cognitive architecture, and finally the educational media and the 22 multimedia principles related to each of the four components.
#3: Low, R., & Sweller, J. (2014). The modality principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 227-246). New York: Cambridge. In this chapter, the authors discuss the modality principle and its effect on cognitive overload, specifically related to the split-attention effect. The issue that still remains is the limited capacity of working memory and that impediment to learning. The modality principle is presented as a technique that can expand working memory capacity. To do so, information is presented in a visual mode and also in an auditory mode. The dual presentation effectively reduces excessive cognitive load and increases learning.
The modality principle is derived in part from the split-attention effect, where multiple sources of information are presented in a way that increases cognitive load because the learner must view one part of the material and then divert attention to review a separate set of material. The improvement with the modality principle comes when the learners are provided learning material (images) are narrated verbally rather than with written statements. Although most studies show improvement using this principle, there are other that show no improvement. The instructional design implications require the use of essential material, therefore not falling into the redundancy principle. Also, learning materials are most effective when presented in small chunks (audio), along with other visual information.
#4: Renkl, A. (2014). The worked examples principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 391-412). New York: Cambridge. In this chapter, the authors discuss the worked examples principle in multimedia learning. They first state that there is deep learner understanding when worked examples are presented in multimedia presentation, especially for those in the initial skill learning stage. The author make note that this is successful when the basic multimedia design principles are used and additional instructional principles are also taken into account. Finally, from the research experiments, new instructional design principles are derived.
Worked examples are expert problem formulations and solutions. The examples also includes solutions steps that lead to a final answer. Procedurally, a worked example first introduces a principle for which to learn. Next, illustrations are shown on how to solve the problem and finally, the learner is given opportunity to apply the principle. The worked example is designed o support the acquisition of cognitive skills (p. 392).
#5: Atkinson, R. K., Derry, S. J., Renkl, A., & Wortham, D. (2000). Learning from examples: Instructional principles from the worked examples research. Review of educational research, 70(2), 181-214. This paper discusses research related to worked examples as instructional devices, which are typically tied to novice learners obtaining new skills, but are also relevant to basic design principles for teaching and instructional materials. Worked examples are and typically have been a part of the cognitive research and scientific experimental programs throughout history. Once a framework for associated principles was developed, principles such as modality, close proximity, segmenting, and labeling, became a part of the discussion for the usefulness (or effective use) of worked examples. They are more than an expert’s way to show how to solve a problem, but have features that learners to actively participate in learning and solving problems.
I chose this paper because I am interested in developing multimedia presentations for students in technology, primarily computer science, information systems, and technology systems. A large part of my instruction, beyond basic definitions, examples, and images, are worked examples. I was looking mainly for modality research, but found most of it related back to Mayer and the many associates of his handbook. I wanted research that began to step away from the research topics presented by Mayer, and this paper did some of that. It spoke to the importance of worked examples and how to strategically “put them together”, for them to be effective for the leaner.