#1: Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 71-77). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
This chapter introduces cognitive information processing (CIP) as a model for storing, retrieving and transforming, information and procedures. The CIP is a natural evolution of the views existing after the birth of the computer after World War II. The flow of information for learning relies on information processing made up of stages beginning with sensory input flowing into sensory memory flowing to working memory and long-term memory. This flow represents input from one’s environment that is processed and eventually stored. Sensory memory holds information only a short while for processing purposes, while working memory allows further processing in preparation for long-term storage. Working memory is also short-term in time and capacity, and in addition to processing, allows for responses to information. Encoding and retrieval of information occurs in the flow to long-term memory. This a permanent and unlimited residence for information. When learning takes place, a person’s visual or auditory senses are triggered, whereby former experiences or knowledge are recognized and brought into working memory. If the information is not familiar, processing is slowed to provide greater attention so that this, like the known, can move to working memory. As the information is encoded in working memory, one can either retrieve meaning from long-term memory or prepare to store and associate new information in long-term memory. Connections are made on the way to long-term memory or new points of connection are created. #2: Guenther, R.K. (1998). Introduction and historical Overview. Human Cognition (pp. 1-27). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. This chapter introduces human cognitive psychology. Guenther discusses a transition from humans being thought of as the center of the universe to being a more natural part of the universe. The study of cognition, the mind’s ability to reason and remember, is based on orderly and self-regulating physical processes (p. 1) and responses rather than supernatural events. The study of human cognition seeks to answer questions of consciousness, learning, perceptions, and problem solving. The Copernicus publication (p. 2) that the sun is the center of the universe rather than the earth, began the end of the supernatural thinking. With this turn, the thought process that humans are a more ordinary and natural part of the physical universe began. With this natural position came a natural biological universe. Viewpoints such as vitalism (life is spiritual), evolution (changes in predecessor species), and mutation (errors in genetic replication) arose. In the end, an understanding of living beings interacting with their environment prevailed. Changing viewpoints opened up the study of cognition science focusing on mental processes. Modern study focuses on information processing and artificial intelligence. Scientists now research higher mental processes and social progress. Example byproducts of this natural mind include progressive changes in school systems, treatment of mental disorders, such as depression, and the development of machine intelligence. #3: Smith & Ragan (1999). Introduction to Instructional Design. Instructional Design (pp. 1-12). New York: Wiley. This chapter discusses instructional design and the systematic planning that is required to produce effective materials for learning. Smith & Ragan (1999) are also quick to note that instruction, education, teaching, and training are not the same. Each of the previously mentioned entities can benefit from proper instructional design since they use a variety of instructional materials, activities, informational resources and evaluation. It is the job of the instructional designer, even if they are in the role of educator, teacher, or trainer, to understand the difference and plan for learning outcomes accordingly. Instruction is facilitated learning toward a goal, for example producing capable students. Training includes instructional experiences that can be use right away…a skill set. Teaching includes learning experiences driven by a human being (p. 3), not via multimedia or text. Education encompasses all learning experiences, whether planned or unplanned. This means instruction, teaching and training are contained within the educational scope. Understanding the distinction between education, instruction, teaching, and training will aid in the instructional design process because the instructional designer can have a successful frame for which to work. This framework includes answering the crucial questions of where instruction is going (goals), how to get there (strategy), and knowing when they have arrived (tests and evaluation). #4: Smith & Ragan (1999). Foundations of Instructional Design. Instructional Design (pp. 13-29). New York: Wiley. This chapter discusses the philosophy and theory that shape instructional design. Smith and Ragan (1999) state that instructional design is an applied, decision-oriented field and provide three reasons why they include theory in their discussion. Reason one is a basis for learning and application. Reason two is to include the basis of research for those practicing in their field. Reason three is to aid in explanation of decisions. The philosophical perspectives discussed in this chapter are constructivism, empiricism, and pragmatism. Constructivism, a part of the rationalist philosophy, states that knowledge is not transmitted, but is constructed (p. 15). Various subsets include individual constructivism where learning is considered active, inevitable, and constructed from personal experience; social where learning is collaborative and combined a variety of perspectives; and contextualism where learning should occur in a realistic setting with testing included in context. Rather than construction, empiricism states that learning happens via experiences. Further, knowledge is acquired due to a decrease in complexity and use of association. Pragmatism is considered “middle ground” (p. 17) where knowledge is gained through experience but is temporary and interpreted via reason. Ultimately, instructional designers need to have a clear understanding of the goals, the plan, and the evaluation. Using theory as a basis can aid in describing, explaining, and predicting learning. #5: Andrews, D. H., & Goodson, L. A. (1980). A comparative analysis of models of instructional design. Journal of instructional development, 3(4), 2-16. Andrews and Goodson (1980) discuss the creation and use of models in instructional design. Instructional materials are a by-product of instructional design and require a “system of logic” (p. 161) when created. Models can drive and assist in planning through input, output, feedback, and revision in planning. Although the model can be helpful, it is also important to know the origination of the model and understand its use (i.e., education, instruction, teaching, or training). Goals and learning objectives are always a primary focus, so it is important to know that the model has undergone some type of validation. Failings of models arise without validation and an understanding of the base theory. Another reason can be cost of design itself and implementation, when appropriate consideration of application is not taken into account. The authors suggest reviewing a variety of models before choosing one for instructional design. Also, be sure the need for a model fits the purpose and provide guidelines for use for those taking on the role of instructional designer and/or educator. Lastly, maintain good documentation.
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